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Power & Batteries
Battery chemistry, LiPo specs, charging rates, capacity comparison, solar panel reference, and marine/aviation power systems.
Battery Chemistry Reference
| Type | Nominal Cell V | Charged Cell V | Typical Config | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lead-Acid | 2.0V | 2.06V/cell | 12V (6 cells) | Marine/automotive, emits H₂ when charging |
| NiCd | 1.25V | 1.4V/cell | 9.6V (8 cells) | Memory effect, contains toxic cadmium |
| NiMH | 1.25V | 1.4V/cell | 12V (10 cells) | No memory effect, higher capacity than NiCd |
| Li-Ion | 3.6V | 4.2V/cell | 7.4V (2 cells) | High energy density, no memory effect |
| LiFePO₄ | 3.2V | 3.65V/cell | 12.8V (4 cells) | Long cycle life, safest lithium chemistry |
| Alkaline AA | 1.5V | 1.65V (fresh) | 9V (6 cells) | Non-rechargeable, common in portables |
| 9V (PP3) | 1.5V × 6 | 9.5V (fresh) | 9V | Non-rechargeable or NiMH rechargeable |
Battery Charging Reference
Always use a charger designed for the specific battery chemistry. Using the wrong charger profile is a common cause of battery damage and fire.
| Chemistry | Charge Rate | Absorption/Max V | Float V | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Lead-Acid (flooded) | 10–20% of Ah capacity | 14.4–14.8V (12V) | 13.2–13.8V | Never exceed 15V — damages plates |
| AGM Lead-Acid | 10–20% of Ah capacity | 14.4–14.7V (12V) | 13.2–13.8V | More sensitive to overcharge than flooded |
| LiFePO₄ | Up to 100% of Ah capacity (1C) | 14.4–14.6V (12V / 4 cells) | 13.5V or none | No float charge needed — disconnect at full |
| Li-Ion | Up to 100% of Ah capacity (1C) | 4.2V per cell | None | Never trickle charge — stop at 4.2V/cell |
| LiPo (drone) | 1C standard, up to 5C fast | 4.2V per cell | None | Balance charge whenever possible |
| NiMH | C/10 slow, C/3 standard | 1.45V/cell peak | C/30 (trickle) | Use delta-V detection for fast charge |
LiPo Battery Cell Count Reference
Never discharge below 3.0V per cell. Storage voltage is 3.8V per cell. Charge to 4.2V per cell maximum.
| Config | Nominal | Full | Cutoff | Storage | Common Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1S | 3.7V | 4.2V | 3.0V | 3.8V | Tiny whoops, micro drones |
| 2S | 7.4V | 8.4V | 6.0V | 7.6V | Micro quads, small planes |
| 3S | 11.1V | 12.6V | 9.0V | 11.4V | Small to mid-size quads |
| 4S | 14.8V | 16.8V | 12.0V | 15.2V | 5" racing/freestyle — most common |
| 5S | 18.5V | 21.0V | 15.0V | 19.0V | High performance 5" builds |
| 6S | 22.2V | 25.2V | 18.0V | 22.8V | 5" and 7" long range, cinematic |
| 8S | 29.6V | 33.6V | 24.0V | 30.4V | Large cinematography drones |
| 12S | 44.4V | 50.4V | 36.0V | 45.6V | Heavy lift, industrial drones |
Drone Motor KV Selection Guide
KV = RPM per volt. Higher KV = faster with smaller props. Lower KV = more torque with larger props.
| KV Range | Typical Use |
|---|---|
| < 1000 KV | Large props (10"–15"+), heavy lift, slow cinematic |
| 1000–1500 KV | 7" long range, larger props, efficient cruising |
| 1500–2500 KV | 5" freestyle/racing on 4S–6S — most common range |
| 2500–3500 KV | 3"–4" quads, 4S setups |
| 3500–5000 KV | 2"–3" micro quads, 2S–3S setups |
| > 5000 KV | Tiny whoop, 1S–2S micro builds |
Common Battery Capacity Comparison
Energy content (Wh) = Capacity (Ah) × Voltage. Useful for comparing batteries across different chemistries and voltages.
| Battery | Capacity | Voltage | Energy | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| AA Alkaline | ~2500 mAh | 1.5V | ~3.75 Wh | Standard primary cell |
| AA NiMH | ~2000–2500 mAh | 1.25V | ~2.5–3.1 Wh | Rechargeable — lower voltage than alkaline |
| 18650 Li-Ion | 2000–3500 mAh | 3.6V | ~7.2–12.6 Wh | Common flashlight, laptop, EV cell |
| 21700 Li-Ion | 3000–5000 mAh | 3.6V | ~10.8–18 Wh | Higher capacity than 18650 |
| 9V Block (alkaline) | ~550 mAh | 9V | ~4.95 Wh | Smoke detectors, radio mics |
| CR2032 (coin) | ~220 mAh | 3V | ~0.66 Wh | Watch batteries, CMOS, key fobs |
| 12V 7Ah SLA | 7,000 mAh | 12V | ~84 Wh | UPS, alarm systems, small ATV |
| 12V 100Ah AGM | 100,000 mAh | 12V | ~1200 Wh | Marine house bank, solar storage |
| 12V 100Ah LiFePO₄ | 100,000 mAh | 12.8V | ~1280 Wh | Usable capacity ~95% vs ~50% for AGM |
Solar Panel Quick Reference
Daily output estimates based on 4–6 peak sun hours. Actual output varies significantly with location, season, angle, and shading.
| Panel | Isc | Voc | Peak Power | Daily Output | Typical Use |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 10W | ~0.6A | ~21V | ~0.6A @ 17V | ~40–60 Wh/day | Small electronics, trickle maintain |
| 50W | ~3A | ~22V | ~2.9A @ 17V | ~200–300 Wh/day | Small 12V system, anchorage charge |
| 100W | ~5.8A | ~22V | ~5.6A @ 18V | ~400–600 Wh/day | Medium marine/RV system |
| 200W | ~11A | ~22V | ~10.6A @ 18.9V | ~800–1200 Wh/day | Larger house bank, sailboat |
| 400W | ~10A | ~49V | ~9.7A @ 41V | ~1600–2400 Wh/day | 48V systems, large installations |
Marine & Aviation Power System Reference
| System | Voltage | Typical Load | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|
| 12V DC marine | 12V nominal / 12.6V full | 5–50A | Small vessels, day boats, auxiliary power |
| 24V DC marine | 24V nominal / 25.2V full | 5–30A | Larger vessels, reduces wiring loss |
| 28V DC aviation | 28V nominal / 28.5–29V charging | 10–200A | Standard for most GA and commercial aircraft |
| 115V AC aviation | 115V AC ±5%, 400 Hz, 3-phase | Varies by equipment | 400 Hz reduces transformer/motor weight vs 60 Hz |
| Shore power 30A | 120V AC single phase | Up to 3,600W | Standard US marina pedestal |
| Shore power 50A | 120/240V AC split phase | Up to 12,000W | Large vessels, high power demand |